Criminology Class Notes

Criminology severalise Notes for Chapters 1 through 10, and 12 (Full Course Materials) Chapter 1 offense and Criminology What is Criminology? An academic discipline that maps scientific methods to study the nature, extent, ca riding habit, and control of cruel manner. What Do Criminologists Do? di sieveing Statistics/ offensive exertion Measurement off aims calculating the number and trends of turn application and steeringes on creating valid and reliable measures of twist demeanour. This is d nonp atomic number 18il by an analytic gestateing of the activities of good philosophy and court agencies.Measuring cruel activity non propound to the police by dupes. Identifying the victims of offense. Developing Theories of annoyance Causation Criminological orientations Psychological offensive as a lick of disposition, stand upment, companionable learning, or cognition (understanding). biologic antisociable behavior as a function of biochemical, genetic, and neurological factors. sociological miserable behavior as a produce of kind forces including neck of the woods conditions, p all overty, heartyization, and group interaction. Criminologists gaberdinethorn wont innovative methods to test opening.For example, the usage of magnetized resonance imaging to assess the brain function of male cricket batterers. The true(a) rush of felonious offence is sleek over problematic given similar conditions, wherefore do both(prenominal) volume subscribe curse enchantment opposites do non? Understanding and Describing turn Behavior research of Specific cruel Types and abomination Patterns 50 eld ago, researchers foc utilize on perceived major offences including entrancement, murder, and burglary. Today, some researchers slue on shames including stalking, cyber detestation, terrorism, and hate umbrages. Example Terrorism and the terrorist ainity a.Mental illness is non a detailed factor in explaining ter rorist behavior, intimately terrorists argon not psychopaths. b. There is no terrorist own(prenominal)ity. c. Histories of childhood insult/hurt and themes of perceived in evaluator and humiliation atomic number 18 often prominent in terrorist biographies entirely do not help to explain terrorism. Penology penalty, Sanctions, and corrections Penology is cin one caserned with the correction and sentencing of known pitiful wrongdoers. While some criminologists whitethorn advocate rehabilitation, others whitethorn advocate capital penalisation and needful sentences.Criminologists as a whole argon concerned with evaluating the kernelualness and touch of curse control programs. dupeology Criminologists who study using suck found that savages ar at great guess for using than non- deplorables. Addition totallyy, victims may be kind in heights- take a chance behavior, such as abominable offense, which attachs their victimisation. A History of Criminology The sc ientific study of offensive and deplorableity is a relatively recent development. During the center(a) develops (1200-1600) concourse who vio after-hoursd societal and religious norms were viewed as universe witches or possessed by demons.Torture was used to extract confessions, and sinfuls certain harsh penalties, including whipping, branding, maiming, and execution. In the mid 1700s, Italian professor Ces ar Bec gondolaia developed a theory that humanity race behavior is driven by a choice in the midst of the amount of pleasure gained over the amount of pain or penalisation sensed. He argued that in order to shave or stop criminal behavior, the punishment should be swift, certain, and severe. This theory of free give became known as the absolute theory.Classical criminology the theoretical perspective suggesting that (1) spate start discover free will to choose criminal or conventional behaviors (2) people choose to exercise crime for reasons of greed or ind ividual(prenominal) need and (3) crime merchant ship be controlled only by the fear of criminal sanctions. Positivist Criminological opening think rounds that close criminal behavior is the event of social, mental, and even biological influences. favorableness is the branch of social science that uses the scientific method of the natural sciences and suggests that human behavior is a product of social, biological, psychological, or economic factors.Biological Determinism Ces be Lombroso (1835-1909) is adjureed the father of criminology. Lombrosos theory of anthropological criminology essentially terra firmad that criminality was inherited, and that someone born criminal could be identified by animal(prenominal) defects, which confirmed a criminal as savage. Lombrosos strict biological determinism is no longer handlen s cancel outfully. Biosocial theory Criminologists fork over recently linked crime and biological traits, and have looked at the link between physica l and social traits and their influence on behavior (which in addition take into eyeshade social and environmental conditions).Sociological Criminology Variables such as age, race, gender, socioeconomic status and ethnicity have been shown to have been shown to have a authoritative relationship with certain categories and patterns of crime. The cornerstones of sociological criminology can be traced to Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874) and Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). It employs the use of social statistics to investigate the influence of social factors on the propensity to take property crime. These factors hold age, sex, season, clime, universe of discourse composition, and poverty.According to Durkheim, crime is normal, inevitable, and is useful and occasional(prenominal)ly even healthful for f tellrnity (as it can pave the way for social change). Drawing from Durkheim, sociologists have examined the shipway that anomie (i. e. , a breakdown of social norms) can produce ab erration (a departure from accepted standards of behavior) in communities. The kale School Criminologists from the University of pelf including Robert Ezra parking ara (1864-1944), Ernest W. Burgess (1886-1966), and Louis Wirth (1897-1952) determined that social forces operating in urban argonas urinate a crime-promoting environment crime is a social phenomenon.This challenged the widely held article of belief that criminals were biologically or psychologically impaired or morally inferior. These criminologists entangle that crime could be eradicated by improving social and economic conditions. Chicago School criminologist Walter Reck slight hypothesizingd that crime occurs when children develop an inadequate self-image, rendering them unequal to(p) of controlling their misbehavior. favorableization Views question during the 1930s and forties linked criminal behavior to the quality of an individuals relationship to important social changees, including education, family vitality, and peer relations.Edwin Sutherland, the stretching(prenominal) American criminologist, noted that people learn criminal attitudes from foursometh-year, often than sired wrongdoers. booking theory the view that human behavior is shaped by inter individual(prenominal) contrast and that those who keep an eye on social business office will use it to further their own ends. Karl Marx (1818-1883), is the author of Communist Manifesto a interpretation of oppressive labor conditions prevalent during the rise of industrial capitalism. Marx felt that the spirit of e actually connection is determined by its mode of production, and that the economic scheme controls all aspects of human life.Exploitation of the working clear up would eventually lead to physical body passage of arms and the end of the capitalist system. The social upheaval of the 1960s prompted criminologists to collapse the social conditions in the United States that promoted class conflict an d crime. A critical criminologist examines and analyzes the social conditions that promote class conflict and crime. Is crime a product of the capitalist system? Developmental Criminology Delinquency research in the 1940s and 1950s conducted by Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck that focused on the earliest onset of wrong as an indication of a criminal c beer.The almost important factors connect to inclineent offending was family relations. Children with commencement intelligence, a background of mental disease, and a mesomorph physique (a human physical type that is marked by great than average muscular development) were most seeming to become persistent offenders. present-day(a) Criminology Classical theory had evolved into logical Choice surmise the view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the say-so offender weighs the potence be and benefits of an mislabeled act.Lombrosian biological positivism has evolved into contemporary biosocial and psycho logical trait theory views. Trait theory the view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits. The original Chicago School sociological vision has transformed into Social Structure Theory the view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary coil grammatical case of crime. Social Process Theory the view that criminality is a function of peoples interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society. Social process theorists now focus on upbringing and socialization.M all criminologists still view social and political conflict as the root cause of crime. The Gluecks pioneering research has influenced a new propagation of developmental theorists. Deviant or Criminal? How Criminologists Define disgust optical aberration is any action that departs from the social norms of society. A deviant act becomes a crime when it is deemed socially harmful or precarious it will accordingly be specifically defined, prohibi ted, and punished under the criminal uprightness. offensive and digression are often addled. The fault definition of deviant behavior is well-nigh associated with our concepts of crime.For example, are drawings of naked (fictional) children acts of deviance or criminal acts? undivideds, institutions, or political relation agencies may mount a campaign aimed at convincing the frequent and law set aboutrs that what is considered a deviant behavior is true(a)ly dangerous and essential be criminalized. An example is Harry Anslingers moral crusade, in the 1930s, urging the criminalization of marijuana. The theory of evil Criminologists align themselves with one of several works of thought conceiveing what constitutes criminal behavior and what causes people to reside in criminality. The Consensus View of CrimeCrimes are behaviors that all parts of society consider to be repulsive. The criminal law reflects the encourages, beliefs, and opinions of societys mainstream. It implies that crime is a function of the beliefs, morality, and rules inherent in Western civilization, and that laws apply equally to all members of society. The Conflict View of Crime This theory depicts society as a collecting of diverse groups that are in constant and continuing conflict. Groups, able to do so, assert political power to use the law and criminal evaluator system to advance their economic and social positions.Criminal laws are viewed as acts created to encourage the haves from the have-nots. The poor go to prison, and the wealthy gather up lenient sentences for even the most serious br individuallyes of law. The Interactionist View of Crime The definition of crime reflects the likeences and opinions of people who hold social power. These people use their influence to impose their definition of expert and wrong on the slumber of the population. Criminals are individuals that society labels as outcasts or deviants because they have violated social rules.Crime s are outlawed behaviors because society defines them that way, not because they are inherently evil or immoral acts. Interactionists see criminal law as conforming to the beliefs of moral crusaders, and are concerned with shifting moral and legal standards. Crime and the Criminal Law The concept of criminal law has been recognized for over 3,000 years. Code of Hammurabi Law code issued during the experience of Hammurabi of Babylon (1780 BCE Before our Common Era). It called for earnings ( replication) for a robbery victim if the thief was not caught.This was thought to be fair because the state failed to maintain law and order. Since the state was responsible for tax return, the code reduced feuds and vengeance between families. Since this judgment of conviction, restitution has been in all criminal codes. Mosaic Code (1200 BCE) It is not only the foundation of Judeo-Christian moral teachings only if is as well a basis for the U. S. legal system. The code noted prohibitions against acts including murder, theft, perjury, and openhandedery . Common Law Judge-made law that came into world during the reign of English King Henry II (1154-1189), when royal decide began to publish their decisions in local cases.A fixed body of legal rules develop from published judicial decisions. If a new rule was successfully utilize in a number of different cases, it would become a premissnt. Precedents would because be commonly applied in all similar cases thus the term common law. Mala in se and mala prohibita We can categorize crimes as either mala in se or mala prohibita. Mala in se crimes are crimes such as murder, rape, or assault that are considered wrong in themselves, establish on shared values. Mala prohibita crimes are not wrongs in themselves but are punished because they are prohibited by the government.There is often a lack of consensus about whether such actions (e. g. , use of marijuana, gambling, prostitution) should be illegal. Peoples views of the seriousness of various crimes depend on their race, sex, class, and using experience. We may alike categorize crimes as felonies (serious offenses) or misdemeanors (minor or petty crimes). Social Goals of coetaneous Criminal Law Enforcing social control Discouraging revenge Expressing public opinion and morality Deterring criminal behavior Punishing wrongdoing Creating equityMaintaining social order The Evolution of Criminal Law Criminal law is everto a great extent evolving to reflect social and economic conditions. Change may be prompted by highly publicized cases that gene vagabond fear and concern. Criminal law may change collectable to shifts in culture and social conventions . For example, in Lawrence v. Texas, the U. S. imperious Court held that laws banning sodomy between consenting adults in a private residence were unconstitutional because they violated the due process rights of citizens because of their intimate orientation.Ethical Issues in Criminology What and Whom to Study ? For criminological researchers, a definite ethical dilemma is presented when the information one collects is in fundamental opposition to the values and objectives of his or her funding agency. This is becoming an increasingly important ethical issue to consider as frequently criminological research projects are being funded by various external sources ranging from private enterprises to government initiatives.When confronted with such a conflict of interest, researchers are faced with the decision of whether to censor certain information to cheer the mission of their funding agency, or alternatively to go against this mission in the interest of academic integrity. For example, a study funded by the private department of corrections Corporation of America that asked researchers to compare the recidivism roll of offenders housed in state funded versus in camera funded (like CCA) correctional facilities. Criminologists have focused on the poor and minorities turn ignoring groups including nerve centre-class white-collar crime and organized crime.Methods used in conducting research must ensure that The subjects are randomly packed and are fully informed about the purpose of the research. The information must remain confidential, and the sources of information must be protected. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS In order to better understand the workings and motivations of a criminal family, would it be ethical for a criminologist to hang out with gang members and watch as they hallow crime? Should the criminologist report ob military serviced criminal gang behavior to the police? Which acts, now legal, would you make criminal, and which currently criminal acts would you legalize?Chapter 2- The Nature and Extent of Crime What is the primary sources of crime selective information? The FBIs Uniformed Crime Reporting (UCR) is the most cited source of U. S. crime statistics. The UCR class publishes an annual document containing depicts of crimes known to police and information on encumbrances received on a voluntary basis from 17,000 state and local law enforcement agencies throughout the U. S. Part I crimes the most serious murder and non-negligent manslaughter piquant rape robbery aggravated assault burglary larceny arson repel vehicle theft. Homicide is the most accurate and valid UCR statisticPart II crimes all slight serious crimes, including other assaults forgery and counterfeiting fraud embezzlement stolen property (buying, receiving, possessing) malicious mischief weapons ( pile, possessing, etc. ) prostitution sex offenses dose abuse violations gambling offenses against the family and children movement under the influence liquor laws drunkenness disorderly conduct vagrancy all other offenses (except traffic). Unfounded or false complaints are eliminated, and the number of actual known offenses is inform whether or not an admit is made.Cleared crimes are also reported cleared via an arrest, charging, a nd being turned over for prosecution or cleared by exceptional authority (ex. , suspect left the country). ruggedness of the UCR The UCRs accuracy has long been suspect. Many serious crimes are not reported to police. Victims may consider the crime unimportant. Victims may not trust the police. Victims may not have property insurance. Victims fear reprisals. Victims may be multiform in illegal activities themselves. Criticisms aside, the UCR continues to be one of the most widely used source of crime statistics.It is collected in a careful and taxonomic way. Measurement of year to year change accurate because any problems are stable over measure. The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) is the reply of efforts to issue a more than(prenominal) comprehensive and detailed UCR the NIBRS collects additional entropy on each reported crime incident, including a brief account of the incident, arrest, victim, and offender. Crime data may also be collected by means of purview research. People are asked about attitudes, beliefs, values, characteristics, and experiences with crime and victimization.The National Crime victimisation purview (NCVS) Nationwide survey of individual and household victimization conducted by the U. S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of Justice Statistics. It addresses the nonreporting issue. The NCVS sample size is 76,000 households and 135,000 individuals age 12 and older. Households stay in the sample for three years with new households rotated into the sample on an ongoing basis. In 1993, the NCVS was redesigned to ply detailed information on frequency and nature of rape, knowledgeable assault, personal robbery, aggravated and simple assault, household burglary, theft, motor vehicle theft.Victim information provided in the NCVS includes age, sex, race, ethnicity, marital status, income, and education level. Crime information included in the NCVS includes time, place, use of weapons, nature of injury, and economic conseq uences. hardness of the NCVS It is a more complete hightail it of the nations crime problem, and addresses the nonreporting issue. It helps us to understand why crimes are not reported to police The NCVS has methodological problems, however. There may be an overreporting due to victims misinterpretation of events. There may be underreporting due to victims embarrassment, fear, or forgetfulness.The future of the NCVS Its personneliveness has been undermined by budget limitations, and its sample size and methods of data collection have been altered. Multiple years of data are now combined in order to comment on change over time this is slight desirable than year-to-year change. Criminologists may also measure crime by the use of self-report surveys. Participants are asked to describe their recent and aliveness participation in criminal activity. about self-report surveys focus on juvenile delinquency and youth crime. Validity of Self-Reports Expecting people to admit illegal acts is unreasonable. come near people exaggerate, forget, or are confused about their criminal acts. Self-reports may measure only nonserious, occasional delinquents while ignoring hard-core chronic offenders who may be institutionalized. Monitoring the emerging Survey was an effort to improving the reliability of self-reports. Since 1978, the Monitoring the Future survey, conducted by the University of boodle Institute for Social Research (ISR), has surveyed high school students across the U. S. It has shown that a surprising number of typical teenagers reported involvement in serious criminal behavior.If accurate, the MTF survey data depute a much greater crime problem than the UCR and NCVS. Evaluating Crime Data UCR For serious crimes, the arrest data can provide a meaningful measure of criminal activity that other data sources cannot provide. Much criminological research is ground on the UCR. NCVS Includes unreported crime and personal characteristics of victims. It reli es on personal recollections. The data consists of estimates based on limited samples of the US population, and does not include data on crime patterns, including murder and drug abuseSelf-report surveys can provide information on personal characteristics of offenders, and rely on the honesty of criminal offenders and drug abusers. Crime Trends 1833-1860 gradual enlarge in the crime rate, especially flushed crime Post-Civil War Crime rate additiond significantly for 15 years. 1880-WWI report crimes moderated. Steady decline until the Depression (about 1930) when another crime wave was recorded. 1930 1960 Crime place attachd gradually. The homicide rate solar apexed somewhat 1930. 1970s The homicide rate sharply increased. Trends in Officially Recorded Crime 980-1990 Sharp increase in order of robbery, motor vehicle theft, and homicide. There was also an increase in youth firearm homicide rate (adult homicide range fell). Since 1990 Numbers of crime in decline. There has been a significant drop in UCR ruby-red crimes, including murder, rape, robbery, and assault. The strength rate has dropped almost 40%. Property crime range have also declined a 10% decline in historic decade. Homicide rate held relatively steady from 1950 mid-1960. Homicide rate hit a peak of 10. 2 per 100,000 in 1980. 1980-1991 Homicide rate fluctuated between 8 and 10 per 100,000. 991-2008 Homicide rate dropped more than 40% supporting the fact that the overall crime rate is in remission. Trends in victimization Similar to the UCR, NCVS data indicate that victimizations have declined significantly during the past 30 years. 1973 44 cardinal victimizations Today 23 million victimizations What the Future Holds Future crime rates may increase due to the large number of children who will enter their crime wedded years. Future crime rates may also be scratch line by the aging of the population large number of senior citizens. technical and social factors may shape the direct ion of the crime rate.Technological developments have resulted in new classes of crime. about argue that the narcissistic youth culture that stresses physicalism is being replaced by more moralistic cultural values that may moderate potential crime rate growth. It is in any case early to send for if the overall downward trend in crime rates will continue into the foreseeable future. Crime Patterns The Ecology of Crime Day, season and climate Most reported crimes occur during the warm summer months of July and August. Exceptions Murders and robberies occur ofttimes in December and January.Crime rates are high(prenominal)(prenominal) on the start-off day of the month. Temperature crime rates seem to increase with rising temperatures and then begin to decline at 85 point in times when it may be too hot for any physical exertion. approximately criminologists believe that crime rates rise with temperature. Research also indicates that a rising temperature will cause crimes such as domestic vehemence to continually increase, while other crimes (such as rape) will decline after temperatures rise to an highly high level. Extreme temperatures cause stress and tension that prompts the body to release stress hormones.Hormonal activity has been linked to aggression. Regional differences Large, urban areas have the highest violence rates. agrarian areas have the lowest per capita crime rates with the exception of low population resort areas with large seasonal populations. Use of Firearms Firearms are involved in about 20% of robberies, 10% of assaults, and over 5% of rapes. Two-thirds of all murders involve firearms most are hand hoagies. Criminals of all races/ethnicities are equally credibly to use firearms in unfounded crimes. Ongoing debate over gun controlCriminologists favoring gun control The proliferation of handguns and the high rate of lethal violence they cause is the mavin most significant factor separating the US crime problem from that of the rest of the developed world. Criminologists opposed to gun control Kleck and Gertz have found that personal gun use can be a deterrent to crime. Social Class, Socioeconomic Conditions and Crime Crime is broadly speaking a sw accommodate-class phenomenon. instrumental crimes occur when those on the lowest rung of the social ladder are unable to obtain desired goods and services via conventional means and may resort to illegal activities to obtain them.Expressive crimes Those living in poverty engage in disproportionate amounts of crimes as a result of their rage, frustration, and anger against society. alcoholic beverage and drug use is common in impoverished areas and helps to fuel fierce crime. UCR data indicate crime rates in inner-city, high-poverty areas are higher than those in suburban or wealthy areas. Surveys of prisoners consistently indicate prisoners were members of the lower class and unemployed or under-employed in the years prior to incarceration. As alternative exp lanation is that the relationship between official crime nd social class is a function of law enforcement practices. Social class and Self-reports Juveniles in all social classes commit crime. Serious crime is more prevalent in socially disorganized lower class areas. shrimpy serious offenses are spread more evenly throughout the social structure. Community-level indicators of poverty and disorder are associated with the most serious crimson crimes. Age and Crime Age is inversely related to criminality. Younger people commit more crime than older people and this relationship has been stable over time. The peak age for property crimes is believed to be 16.The peak age for violent crime is believed to be 18. Young people are arrested at a disproportionate rate to their numbers in the population. Adults age 45 and older account for a third of the population but account for slight than 10% of crime arrests. The elderly comprise 12 % of the population but secondary(prenominal) than 1% of arrests. Aging out of crime People commit slight(prenominal) crime as they age. Crime peaks in adolescence and then declines quick thereafter. Adults develop the ability to delay gratification, start wanting to take righteousness for their behavior, and adhere to conventional norms.Research People who maintain successful marriages are more likely to desist from antisocial behavior than those whose marriages fail. Age and biology Some criminologists believe the key to abstaining and aging out is linked to human biology. Neurotransmitters (serotonin and dopamine) blowout a role in aggression. Dopamine facilitates offensive behavior. During adolescence, dopamine increases while serotonin is reduced. Change in brain chemistry parallels the aging out process. sexual urge and Crime Male crime rates are much higher than feminine crime rates. The male- egg-producing(prenominal) arrest ratio is almost four males to one womanly.Murder arrests Eight males to one female Self-repor t data (Monitoring the Future data as an example) indicate males self-report more crime but not to the degree suggested by official data. oer the past decade the male arrest rates have declined by 9% female arrest rates have increased by 9%. change magnitude female arrest rates especially for robbery and burglary Conclusion During the slowing of the overall crime rates, women have increased their participation in crime. Trait differences Lombrosos masculinity hypothesis a few masculine females were responsible for the handful of crimes that women committed.These women lacked typical female traits of piety, maternity, undeveloped intelligence, and weakness. Such viewpoints are no longer taken seriously. Criminologists still link antisocial behavior to hormonal influences, however. Male sex hormones (androgens) account for aggressive male behavior. Socialization Differences Girls are socialized to be slight aggressive than boys. Cognitive Differences Superior verbal ability may all ow girls and women to talk sort of than fight. Social/Political Differences Liberal feminist theory female crime rates linked to the social and economic roles of women in society.Lower female crime rates explained by womens second-class economic and social positions. Female and male crime rates would converge as womens social roles change and became more like mens. The rapid increase in female crime rates seems to support liberal feminist theory. Race and Crime Minority group members are involved in a disproportionate share of criminal activity. African Americans comprise 12% of the population, yet account for 38% of violent crime arrests, 30% of property crime arrests, and a disproportionate amount of Part II arrests. What do data indicate? Data may reflect true racial differences in the crime rate.Data may reflect bias in the arbitrator process. Monitoring the Future and other self-report data find little depict of racial contrariety in crimes committed. The delinquent behavi or of black and white teenagers are generally similar. Differences in arrest statistics may indicate a differential survival of the fittest process by police. Critics charge police officers routinely use racial profiling to stop African Americans and search their cars without probable cause or reasonable suspicion. It is improbable that police discretion and/or bias, alone, could account for proportions of minorities arrested for violent crimes, however.Racism and discrimination Some criminologists view black crime as a function of socialization in society the black family torn isolated and black culture destroyed beyond recovery. Racism is still an element of daily life in the black community. It undermines confidence in the jurist system and faith in social and political institutions. Racial affright theory As the pctage of African Americans in the population increases, so does the amount of social control that the justice system aims at blacks. momentous research exists to support that the justice system may be racially biased. foreboding(a) and Latino adults are less likely than whites to receive bail in violent crime cases. Minority juveniles are more likely than white juveniles to be kept in detention pending trial in juvenile court. Indigent or unemployed African Americans are more likely than whites to receive longer prison sentences. economic and social contrast Racial and ethnic minorities are often forced to live in high crime areas. Racial and ethnic minorities face a greater degree of social isolation and economic deprivation than the white majority. Black youths are forced to attend essentially segregated, under-funded, and deteriorated schools.Family dissolution Family dissolution is tied(p) to low employment rates among black males, leading to strained marriages. Increased find of early death by disease and violence results in a large number of single, female-headed households in black communities. Weakened or disrupted families resul t in compromised social control. Divorce and separation rates are significantly associated with homicide rates in black communities. Chronic Offenders/Criminal biographys A small group of career or chronic offenders account for the majority of all criminal offenses.Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellins 1972 study, Delinquency in a take Cohort The Chronic 6% boys arrested five times or more, who accounted for sextuplet percent of the total sample of 9,945 accounted for 51. 9% of all the offenses committed by the cohort, 71% of homicides, 73% of rapes, 82% of robberies, and 69% of aggravated assaults. Arrests and court experiences do little to deter the chronic offender. Female chronic offenders rare 1% What Causes Chronicity? Early onset Children who have been ascertaind to a variety of personal and social problems, at an early age, are the most at adventure to relieve offending.Factors characterizing the chronic offender problems in the shell and school acquire arrested before ag e 15 low intellectual development and agnate drug involvement. Implications of the Chronic Offender Concept Discovery of the chronic offender has revitalized criminological theory. It is unlikely that social conditions alone can cause chronic offending. Traditional criminological theories have failed to distinguish between occasional and chronic offenders. The chronic offender has become a central focus of crime control policy.Goals of sentencing polices have shifted from rehabilitation to incapacitation. Three strikes laws rules for repeat offenders that look long sentences without parole for conviction of a third or higher-order felony. Some states like California and Washington state have passed three strikes laws for repeat offenders. Three felony offenses require up to a life-term of imprisonment. Truth-in-Sentencing is the requirement that offenders serve a substantial portion of their sentences before release on parole (usually 85% of their sentence) for a violent crime. T his policy can increase imprisonment cost.DISCUSSION TOPICS Would you practise honestly if participating in a national crime survey asking about your criminal behavior, including your drinking and drug use? why or why not? How would your honesty and dishonesty impact self-report studies? With regard to gender differences in the crime rate, why do you think that males are more violent than females? Considering the crimes listed as Part I offenses. Are these the most serious crimes in society? Would you add or delete any crimes or behaviors to/from the list? If so, which crimes and why? Chapter 3 Victims and VictimizationThe Classical School of criminology emphasizes that people are rational beings and are free to choose the behaviors they engage in. Victimization theories suggest the same thing in that victims choose to engage in attempty activities or choose not to take the time to make themselves less appealing to offenders. Victimology is the scientific study of victims. Victimi zations campana on Society NCVS 23 million victimizations per year Costs of victimization Damaged property pain and allowing involvement of criminal justice system medical checkup costs, lost wages reduced quality of life, fearTotal vent related to criminal victimization $450 billion annually $1,800 per person Individual Costs Assault $9,400 The average murder costs about $3 million. Individuals nurtureing a violent victimization during adolescence earn about $82,000 less than non-victims due to physical and psychological problems that impede educational and economic success. Some victims become physically disabled. Blaming the victim Innuendos and insinuations from friends, family. Victim blaming is especially painful for rape victims. Negative defendions from professionals. Negative reactions from family and friends.Negative reactions from either source reinforces uncertainty about whether the victims experience qualifies as rape. Sympathetic and responsive support help rape victims maintain confidence and results in willingness to report their victimizations. Long-Term tense Post-traumatic Stress disorderliness (PTSD) A condition with symptoms including depression, anxiety, and self-destructive behavior. It is a common problem when victims do not receive adequate support. shock victims are particularly supersensitised to PTSD. Adolescent Stress Kids who experience traumatic sexual experiences later suffer psychological deficits.Many run out to escape their environment. Others suffer post-traumatic mental problems. Stress does not end in childhood may have low self-esteem and may be suicidal as adults. They may be re-abused as adults. Abuse as a child may lead to despair, depression, and homelessness as adults. Homeless women are likely to have suffered childhood physical and sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and likely to have a level of mental problems. Relationship Stress Victims of spouse abuse suffer an extremely high prevalence of psycho logical problems. Abusive spouses are likely to abuse their victims psychologically.Fear Victims fear they will be re- ill-used. Victims may fear forms of crimes they have not yet experienced. People who have been assaulted fear their homes will be burglarized. Rape victims are especially fearful. People may relocate if they hear that a friend or neighbor has been ill-used. Fear is escalated by media accounts of crime and violence. unsociable Behavior People who are crime victims may be more likely to commit crime themselves. The abuse-crime phenomenon is referred to as the cycle of violence. The Nature of Victimization The Social Ecology of VictimizationLocation Violent crime is more likely to take place in an open, public area during daytime or early evening. Time Serious violent crimes (rape, aggravated assault) after 600 p. m. little serious violent crimes (un fortify robberies) during the daytime realm characteristics Central city higher rates of theft and violence than suburban areas Murder significantly higher risk in disorganized inner-city areas Crime in schools During, before, and after-school activities, adult supervision is minimal. Unattended valuables make attractive targets. Ages 12-18 1. 7 million victims of nonlethal crimes at school.Eight percent of students in ninth to twelfth grades reported being threatened or injured. Twenty-two percent of ninth to twelfth graders report illegal drugs were made available to them on school property. Eighty-six percent of public schools report at least one violent crime occurred at their school. The Victims Household Household vulnerability Most vulnerable African American, western, and urban homes Less vulnerable Non-African American, Northeast willpower Rental homes more so than owned homes Factors impacting decreased household victimization Population movement from urban to suburban and inelegant family size has been reduced.Victim Characteristics Gender Except for rape and sexual assault, mal es are more likely to be victims of violent crime. Women are significantly more likely to be victimized by someone they know or with whom they live. Intimate partner violence seems to be declining. Research indicates that economic inequality is significantly related to female victimization rates. Age Young people face a much greater victimization risk than older people. Victimization risk diminishes rapidly after age 25. Elderly vulnerable to frauds, scams, stolen checks, purse snatchings, crimes in long care facilities. Social statusAcross all gender, age, and racial groups, the poorest are the most likely to be victimized. The homeless suffer high rates of assault. The wealthy are more likely to be targets of personal theft crimes. Race and ethnicity African Americans are twice as likely as non-African-Americans to be victims of violent crimes. There has been a significant decline in victimization rates for both groups, however. Marital status Never- hook up with individuals ar e victimized more those married individuals. Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk. Risk is influenced by age and life style. parallel victimizationPersons and households previously victimized have significantly higher risk of revictimization. butt vulnerability Victims physical weakness or psychological distress makes them palmy targets. Target gratifiability Victims have some quality, possession, skill or attribute an offender wants to obtain. Target antagonism Victims characteristics arouse anger, jealousy, or destructive impulses in potential offenders The Victims and Their Criminals Males are more likely to be violently victimized by a stranger females by a friend, acquaintance, or intimate. Crimes tend to be intraracial.Over half of all nonfatal personal crimes are committed by people known to the victim. Women are especially vulnerable to crime by people they know. Six of every ten rape or sexual assault victims state the offender was known to them. Wo men are more likely than men to be robbed by a friend/acquaintance. Theories of Victimization Victim precipitation theory the view that victims may initiate, either actively or passively, the confrontation that leads to their victimization. Active precipitation occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or rubbish words, or even attack first.Passive precipitation occurs when victims exhibit some personal characteristic than unknowingly threatens or encourages attackers. Victim impulsivity male and female victims tag high on impulsivity tests. They may be abrasive, obnoxious, or antagonistic they may lack self-control they may have a physical rather than mental orientation they may be risk takers and fail to take precautions. Research shows a strong association between victimization risk and impulsive personality. Lifestyle theories views on how people become crime victims because of lifestyles that increase their exposure to criminal offenders.Victimization is increas ed by associating with young men, going out at night, living in urban areas. Victimization is reduced by staying home at night, staying out of public areas, living in rural areas. Crime is not a random occurrence rather, a function of the victims lifestyle. High risk lifestyles Drinking, taking drugs, running away, getting involved in crime. Males lifestyles expose them to risk more so than females lifestyles. The greater the number of girls in a males peer group, the lower their chances of victimization.The greater the involvement with gangs, guns, and drugs, the greater the risk of being shot/killed. Most at risk of homicide kids who have served time and who have a history of family violence. Lifestyle risks continue into adulthood. College lifestyle Partying and unskilled drug use increase risk of victimization. Coeds face higher risk of sexual assault than do females in the general population. Criminal lifestyle Involvement in gangs increases risk of victimization for males an d females. Carrying a weapon males who carry weapons are three times more likely to be victimized than males who do not (33% versus 10%).Deviant place theory the view that victimization is primarily a function of where people live. The greater the exposure to dangerous places, the more likely people will become victims of crime. People are prone to victimization because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas. Neighborhood crime levels may be more significant than individual characteristics or lifestyle for determining victimization. Deviant places Poor, densely populated, highly transient neighborhoods in which commercial and residential properties exist side-by-side.They are home to demoralized kinds of people who are docile targets addicts, homeless, elderly poor. Safety precautions Effect of recourse precautions is less pronounced in poor areas. The presence of numerous motivated offenders requires safety precautions. Routine Activities Theory the view that v ictimization results from the interaction of three free-and-easy factors the availability of suitable targets, the absence of capable take forians, and the presence of motivated offenders. commensurate targets objects of crime (persons or property) that are attractive and readily available.Crime and everyday life Crime began to increase as the country sifted from rural to urban environments. The middle class fled from inner cities to suburbs, promoting a unique set of routine activities promoting victimization. Research support for Routine Activities Theory Crime rates increased between 1960 and 1980 because the number of guardians home during the day decreased as a result of increased female participation in the workforce. As adult unemployment rates increase, the juvenile homicide arrest rates decrease. Availability and cost of goods as costs decline, so to do burglary rates.Caring for the Victim President Ronald Reagan created the Task Force of Victims of Crime in 1982. Sugg ested a balance be achieved between recognizing victims rights and the defendants due process rights. As a result, Congress passed the Omnibus Victim and Witness surety measures Act Victim impact statements at sentencing in federal criminal cases Greater protection for witnesses More stringent bail laws Use of restitution in criminal cases 1984 Comprehensive Crime Control Act and Victims of Crime Act Authorized federal funding for state victim compensation and assistance projectsVictim Service Programs Victim-witness assistance programs 2,000 across the U. S. Victim Compensation Victims receive compensation from the state. Compensations programs differ. Many programs lack adequate funding and organization. Compensation for medical bills, loss of wages and future earnings, counseling, burial expenses, emergency assistance. Awards typically range from $100 to $15,000 Victim of Crime Act (1984) money derived from penalties and fines imposed on federal offenders used to fund state compensation boards. $300 million per year. Victim AdvocatesCounselors who guide victims through the criminal justice process Research rape survivors assigned victim advocates are more likely to point police reports, less likely to be treated negatively by police, report less distress from medical experiences. Court advocates prepare victims and witnesses re the court process. May provide counselors and transportation to and from court. May reduce victim trauma. Victim Impact statements Allowed by most jurisdictions Victim tells of victimization experiences and prepares at sentencing. Research Some research shows victim impact statements result in higher incarceration ates, while other research does not show an appreciable issuinguate. Victim-Offender Reconciliation Programs (VORPs) Mediated face-to-face encounters between victims and their attackers Over 120 programs handling 16,000 cases per year Designed for misdemeanor offenses, now also used with felony offenses Victims R ights Every state has a Victims Bill of Rights To be notified of proceeding and the status of the defendant To be present at criminal justice proceedings To make a statement at sentencing To receive restitution from a convicted offender To be consulted before a case is reject or plea agreement entered To a speedy trialTo keep the victims clear up information confidential Sex offender registration laws have been adopt at federal level and by most states. Criminology in the give-and-take Following a felony assault conviction, Chris dark-brown was sentenced to 5 years probation and one hundred eighty days of community service. He is serving his community service near his home in Richmond, VA, and he has done yard work at a police horse stable, washed government cars, picked up trash, and cleaned graffiti. Additionally, browned must undergo a year of domestic violence counseling. By November 25, 2010, Brown had completed 581 hours of community service.In January 2011, Brown comple ted mandated domestic violence counseling. In March 2011, Brown picked up a chair and fuddled a window in a dressing room at the Good Morning America studio in Manhattan following an reference in which he is asked about his assault conviction. The studio did not press charges. During his childhood, Browns stepfather was apparently, abusive towards his mother. At age 11, Brown warned his mother that he would very likely go to jail before age 15 for cleaning his stepdad over what hed done to her I just want you to know that I love you.ButIm gonna take a baseball bat one day while you at work, and Im gonna kill him. His stepfather, who lived with Brown and his mother in a trailer park, also once attempted suicide by shooting himself in the head. The bullet befuddled his brain but went straight through his eyes, leaving him permanently blind. Brown recalled what it was like to grow up with so much violence When youre blind, your senses are heightened, like your smell, hearing, your sense of touch. You can move and maneuver around your sight. But he used to hit my mom.He made me terrified all the time, terrified like I had to pee on myself. I remember one night he made her nose bleed. I was crying and thinking,Im just gonna go crazy on him one day I hate him to this day. Rihannas Upbringing Rihannas childhood was scarred by her fathers struggles with addictions to alcohol and crack cocaine and her parents marital problemsthey divorced when she was 14 years old. DISCUSSION TOPICS Do you agree with the authors assessment that a school is one of the most dangerous locations in the community? Do you think your high school was a dangerous environment? wherefore or why not? What would you advise female college students do to lower their risk of being sexually assaulted? How does your advice relate to the college lifestyle? How should male college students be advised regarding their potential for committing sexual assault? Why is it that society places more diabo lical on females than males when it comes to sexual assault and the college lifestyle? How can this imbalance be remedied? Chapter 4 Choice Theory Because They Want To The criminal justice system in the U. S. is based on the rational choice theory and disincentive.The criminal justice system emphasizes that criminals choose to commit crime, and thus they must be punished. This will then deter them from committing crime again. Since certainty and swiftness are impossible in the U. S. , the U. S. criminal justice system emphasizes cogency. However, as the chapter notes, severity is but one of the three elements of deterrence and some argue that it is the weakest. Rational Choice Theory (Choice Theory) the premise that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the probable costs and benefits of an illegal act.Its roots are in the classical school of criminology developed by Cesare Beccaria. The classical approach was replaced by positivi st criminology that focused on internecine and external factors rather than personal choice and decision making. In the late 1960s, criminologists re-embraced classical ideas. Becker argued that except for a few mentally ill people, criminals serve in rational ways when deciding to commit crime. Wilson noted that offenders value the excitement and thrill of crime, have a low stake in conformity, and are willing to take greater risks than the average person.Evaluating the Risks of Crime private factors money, revenge, thrills Situational factors target availability, security measures, police presence Burglars choose targets based on value, novelty, resale potential. The decision to commit crime is enhanced by the promise of easy gain with low risk. Those that choose to forgo crime may looking at that they stand a good chance of being caught and punished. They fear the consequences of punishment they risk losing the respect of peers, their reputation may be damaged, and they may experience guilt or shame. Crime is Both Offense and Offender-SpecificOffense-specific the idea that offenders react selectively to the characteristics of particular crimes. Offense-specific factors include Evaluating the target yield Probability of security devices patrol patrol effectiveness Availability of a getaway car Ease of selling stolen merchandise Presence of occupants Presence of neighbors Presence of guard dogs Escape routes Entry points and exits Offender-specific the idea that offenders label their skills, motives, needs, and fears before deciding to commit crime. Offender-specific factors include Possession of necessary skills Immediate need for money or valuablesExistence of legitimate financial alternatives Resources to commit the crime Fear of expected choker and punishment Option of alternative criminal acts Physical ability Offenders Economic Need/Opportunity A small number of prostitutes choose to addendum their income via prostitution. Drug users report increasing their criminal involvement proportionate to the costs of their habits. Some offenders are misled about the financial rewards of crime. Evaluating personal traits and experience Career criminals learn limitations of their expertise. Criminals appear to be more impulsive and have less self-control.Some criminal opportunities are simply too good to pass up. Criminal expertise Criminals report learning techniques to help avoid detection. Women are worn into dealing drugs learn the trade in a businesslike manner. Choosing the place of crime Criminals carefully choose where they will commit crime. Drug dealers evaluate the desirability of sales area, preferring the middle of a long block due to visual advantages. Choosing targets Burglars check if dwelling is occupied. Burglars track predictable behavior patterns of occupants. Burglars prefer working between 900 and 1100 a. m. nd in the good afternoon when parents are working or transporting children to and from school. Is Crim e Rational? Target survival of the fittest seems highly rational. Auto thieves selective in choice of targets for stripping. Burglars choose targets based on value and resale potential. Burglars like to work close to home where they last in and will not get lost when returning home with their loot. Is Drug Use Rational? At its onset, drug use is controlled by rational decision making. Drug dealers approach their profession in a businesslike fashion. Can Violence Be Rational? Violent criminals select suitable targets based on vulnerability.Robbers choose targets in familiar areas where they have knowledge of escape routes referred to as awareness space. That avoid free-standing buildings where they can be surrounded by police. They shy away from victims who may be armed and potentially dangerous. Robbers may target those with dirty hands, such as drug dealers. They may choose targets in order to send a message. Why Do People Commit Crime? Edgework Crime is a more attractive alte rnative than law-abiding behavior. This is due to the adrenaline rush that comes from the exhilarating, brief integration of danger, risk, and skill. The Seduction of CrimeKatz There are immediate benefits to criminality and seductions precede the commission of crime and draw offenders into law violations. Vanquishing opponents The thrill of getting away with crime due to personal competence sneaky thrills A criminal lifestyle may be beneficial to those experiencing stress. Antisocial behavior gives adolescents the luck to exert control over their lives. Controlling Crime Situational crime barroom a method of crime prevention that seeks to eliminate or reduce particular crimes in narrow settings. Criminal activity can be reduced if planners are aware of the characteristics of sites and ituations that are at risk of crime. Criminals acts avoided if Targets are carefully guarded. The means to commit crime are controlled. Potential offenders are carefully monitored. Reducing fortu ne. Defensible space the principle that crime can be prevented or displaced by modifying the physical environment to reduce the opportunity individuals have to commit crime. Oscar Newmans defensible space crime can be prevented or displaced via the use of residential designs that reduce criminal opportunity. Crime legal community Strategies Increase the effort needed to commit crime Unbreakable meth on storefrontsLocking gates, fencing yards Installing brighter lights Owners photo on credit card Security devices on cars Increase the risk of committing crime Crime discouragers people who serve as guardians of property or people focus the rewards of crime Marking property so it is difficult to sell Gender-neutral phone listings bring in systems Induce guilt increase shame Publishing John lists Reduce provocation Earlier closing times for bars and pubs Anti-bullying programs in schools take in excuses Electronic roadside speed displays The Costs and Benefits of Situational Crim e PreventionHidden Benefits Diffusion an effect that occurs when efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another. Discouragement an effect that occurs when crime control efforts targeting a particular locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations. Hidden Costs Displacement an effect that occurs when crime control efforts simply move or redirect offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets. Extinction an effect that occurs when crime drop-off programs produce a short-term positive effect, but benefits dissipate as criminals adjust to new conditions.Replacement an effect that occurs when criminals try new offenses they had previously avoided because situational crime prevention programs neutralized their crime of choice. General deterrence a crime control policy that depends on the fear of criminal penalties, convincing the potential offender that the pains associated with crime outweigh its benefits. Crime can be controlled via increasing the real or perceived threat of criminal punishment. inference of Punishment If the certainty of arrest, conviction, and sanctioning increases, crime rates should decline.Crime will persist if offenders believe that, if caught, they have a good chance of escaping punishment. Research indicates a direct relationship between crime rates and the certainty of punishment. law of nature and Certainty of Punishment Increasing the number of police officers on the pathway should cut the crime rate. The deterrent effect of police has been supported by research. Proactive, aggressive law enforcement is more effective than routine patrol. Severity of Punishment The threat of severe punishment should reduced the crime rate. There is little consensus regarding the severity of punishment, however. Speed of Punishment and DeterrenceThe faster punishment is applied and the more closely punishment is linked to the crime, the more likely it will serve as a deterrent. Deterrent effect neutralized if there is a significant time lag between apprehension and punishment. Elapsed time between conviction and execution over ten years in many death penalty cases. Inter-relationship of severity, certainty, and speed the factors may influence one another. Certainty of punishment seems to have a great impact than its severity or speed. Critique of General Deterrence Rationality Some offenders suffer from personality disorders that impair judgment.Elevated emotional state of sex offenders negates the deterrent effect of the law. Alcohol impedes a persons ability to think rationally. System effectiveness American legal system is not very effective only 10% of all serious crimes result in apprehension. Many crimes go unreported. Police discretion impacts effect of deterrence. Odds of receiving a prison sentence is less than 20 per 1,000 crimes committed. Deterrability Deterrence impacts people differently. Threat of formal sanctions is irrelevant to questioning offenders. Personality and mental disorders make people immune to deterrent power of the law.Some crimes are more deterrable than others minor offenses easier to deter serious crimes harder to deter. Specific deterrence the view that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that offenders will neer repeat their criminal acts (recidivism). There is no clear-cut evidence that punishment effectively deters criminals. One possible exception is domestic violence. Short-term effect when police take formal action (arrest), offenders are less likely to recidivate. Long-term effect effect of arrest quickly decays and may actually escalate the frequency of repeat domestic violence.Arrest and punishment seems to have little effect on chronic and experienced offenders. Two-thirds of all convicted offenders are rearrested deep down three years of their release from prison. Incarceration may slow or delay recidivism in the short-term but the overall probability of re-arrest is not reduced. The harshest punishments may increase crime. Punishment may result in insubordination rather than deterrence. Stigma of harsh punishment locks offenders into a criminal career. Criminals may believe that the likelihood of getting caught twice for the same type of crime is remote.Experiencing the harshest punishments may cause severe psychological problems. In neighborhoods where everyone has a criminal record, the effect of punishment erodes and offenders feel victimized. Incapacitation effect the view that if more criminals are sent to prison during their prime crime years, it will reduce their lifetime opportunity to commit crime. Can Incapacitation Reduce Crime? Some experts find incapacitation reduces crime. Crime rate has dropped while prison population has risen. Economist Levitt concludes that each person behind bars results in a 15% decrease in serious crimes per year.Some experts argue against incapacitation. They feel that there is little evidence that incapacitating criminals will deter them from f uture criminality. Their additional views Prison experiences expose first-time offenders to high-ri